Ruling class of Muslim rule in India

The high rank holders of the Muslim government t constituted the nobility and aristocracy of the Muslim rule in India. In the early years of Muslim rule foreign adventurers and warriors monopolized appointments to high offices. The composition of the ruling class was multi-ethnic in nature comprising of the majority of Turks along with Persians, Abyssinians, Egyptians, Afghans and converted Mongols who obtained and held high offices of the state.

The Turkish domination was broken during the rule of the Lodhi dynasty that witnessed Afghan adventurers of various tribes and clans flocked to India and soon became one of the most influential segments of the ruling elite. During the Mughal time the imperial service remained predominantly foreign with Iranis and Turanis forming the core of the cadre. The Turanis hailed from Central Asia where the Turkish language was spoken. Iranis comprised the Persian speaking people and belonged to the region presently extending from Iraq and Iran to Afghanistan.

The Mughals formalised the structure of the ruling class and graded them as Mansabdars who were not only government officers but also the richest class in the empire. They formed a closed aristocracy and keeping in view its exclusivity, entrance into this class was not usually possible for the common people whatever their merits. Naturally, therefore, the most important factor which was considered when nobles were appointed was heredity. The Khanazads, the scions of royalty and sons and descendants of Mansabdars, had the best claim to such appointments and were given priority in official appointments with the ruler of the day heavily relying on their loyalty and efficiency.

The Mughals were ethnically Turks but along with them existed many other races as foreigners were always preferred. It is recorded that Sultan Muhammad Tughlaq always preferred foreign Muslims for appointment as officers and he exhibited clear bias in their favour. His heavy tilt towards them resulted in serious rebellions during the reign of Tughlaq rule and this attitude mirrored the general attitude of the subsequent rulers towards the local personnel. Quite obviously Muslim nobles from foreign lands considered the local material as them as lowborn despite the fact that not all foreign Muslims were of high lineage and many came from humble backgrounds. Right through the Muslim rule, low origin foreigners used to come as individuals and in groups to seek employment in India and it was commonly known that the ruling class consisted predominantly of adventurers.

Interestingly, their employment of India raised their status particularly the ones who won the favour of the ruler. In Muslim rule there were huge prizes to be won and one need not wonder that the service should have attracted to the court the ablest and most enterprising men from a large portion of Western Asia. Nevertheless, high and low, foreign and Indian, the Muslim nobles after all belonged to one and the same cadre and they tried to come closer together. On the one hand, foreign Muslims used to become locals after the lapse of a few generations.

Despite such expression of fraternity, the children of the third and fourth generation of Uzbegs, Persians, Arabs and Turks were held in much less respect than the new corners. On the other hand, the low-born Indian Muslim became elitist with rise in economic status. Belonging to Islam was a great cementing force, and, whatever the colour of the skin, all Muslim nobles tried to feel as one, as belonging to the ruling elite, as searching for exotic roots.

It was aristocratic on the part of the orthodox Muslim to import traditions, language and culture of the area he hailed from. He insisted that his civil and criminal law must be derived from the writings of jurists and the decisions of judges in Baghdad and Cairo. The result was that the Muslim ruling elite was an intellectual exotic and he tried hard to stay true to his roots.

Besides the competition between Indian and foreign Muslim nobles, there was also constant contest between Muslim and Hindu nobles. With the permanent establishment of Muslim rule, the policy of the sultans was generally to keep the Hindus excluded and appoint only Muslims but the Hindus possessed native intelligence and experience, sons of the soil as they were, and many of the best Hindus had to be employed, especially during the Mughal period. The Hindus in a way were indispensable.

These nobles were in attendance on the king in the capital or in camp and in outstations held civil and military assignments, as governors of provinces or commanders of the army. Indeed, they were expected to cultivate versatility, there being no distinction between civil and military appointments and duties. Raja Birbal, after many years as court wit, met his death fighting Yusafzais as commander of troops on the frontier while Abul Fazl, the most eminent literary figure of the time, distinguished himself in military operations in the Deccan.

The nobles were called Umara and were graded as Khans, Maliks, Amirs and Sipehsalars in the Sultanate period and as Mansabdars under the Mughals. They were graded according to the command structure laid down by the imperial government. The gradation was on the pattern devised by Chengiz Khan and was inherited by the offshoots of Mongol Empire that included Muslim rulers of the subcontinent.

This gradation was subsequently followed by all then ruling dynasties and was even adopted by the European rulers. The term Amir was normally used in a generic sense to denote a high officer. In Akbar’s time and after, all the great men of the Mughal Empire were graded and appointed to a mansab (rank) in the imperial service. From the lowest rank, that of the commander of ten, up to the rank of 400 an officer was known as Mansabdar. From 500 onwards a noble was known as Amir, or Khan, or Khan-i-Azam.

In order to ensure their loyalty and efficient management of the empire, the Umara were highly paid. Their remuneration was paid sometimes in the form of a cash salary at others by the grant of a revenue assignment known as iqta and the first this term was heard was during the reign of Sultan Iltutmish of the Mamluk dynasty that began the Muslim rule in 1206.

This land assignment was basically a salary collected at source. The remuneration levels were high during the sultanate period enabling the ruling class to live lavishly employing hundreds of retainers. The salaries during the Mughal period were equally high as the earnings of the empire made it one of the richest enterprises in the world. Though the salary figures are not accurately mentioned yet it was cleared that they were exorbitant as compared to the earnings of people of means let alone the common man.

The ruling class enjoyed the privilege and influence that was unparalleled and in the world around the Mughal empire. It must however be conceded that the tasks and responsibility of the ruling class was commensurate with the monetary benefits allowed to it and there is hardly any doubt that it was because of its exertions that the Muslim rule lasted for as long as did.