Tense relations between ruler and nobility

The Muslim rule in India was a continuous struggle for supremacy between the rulers and their nobility. Both were indispensable for the governance by a minority that could only remain in control if they cooperated and collaborated. Although many of the Turkish sultans in India portrayed themselves as possessing approval from higher ecclesiastical sources but the issue was that they were mere mortals as their collaborators.

The ruler’s moral position was ephemeral at best and he had to continuously guard against insecurities that were mostly exploited by the ambitious members of the nobility. Moreover, the nobility was recalcitrant and grudgingly recognised the over-lordship of the ruler.

At the outset and for many purposes the office of the ruler was the most important in the realm as supreme political, military and even legal authority was vested in him. He was responsible for the safety and security of the state. As such, he was responsible for administration and was also the commander-in-chief of the military forces. He was also responsible for the maintenance of law and justice. To discharge this function, he appointed judges but the sultan acted as a court of appeal from the judges. A direct appeal could be made to him against the highhandedness of any of his officials. The dispensation of justice was regarded as a very important function of any ruler.

There were few rulers who did not even spare their relatives or high officers of state. Some of them extended this practice even to the religious class that was mostly exempted from harsh punishments.

No clear law of succession developed among Muslim rulers. The Islamic theory adhered to the idea of the election of the ruler but accepted in practice the succession of any son of a successful ruler. However, all the sons of a ruler were considered to have an equal claim to the throne. The idea of primogeniture was fully acceptable neither to the Muslims nor to the Hindus.

Some rulers did try to nominate one of the sons, not necessarily the eldest, as the successor. Iltutmish even nominated a daughter in preference to his sons but it was for the nobles to accept such a nomination. While the Muslim opinion generally adhered to the idea of legitimacy, there was no safeguard against the usurpation of the throne by a successful military leader, as happened more than once in the Muslim rule. In actual fact, military strength was the main factor in succession to the throne.

However, public opinion could not be ignored as it happened in few cases whereby the rulers could not dare to go against public sentiments.
The ruler and his chief nobles enjoyed a standard of living which was comparable to the highest standard in the world at that time, viz., to the standards of the ruling class in the Islamic world in West and Central Asia. While Europe was still trying to overcome its backwardness, the opulence and wealth of the ruling classes in the Islamic world was dazzling and set a standard which the ruling classes in every country tried to emulate.

Almost every ruler in India built his own palace. And that too a dazzling court which was designed to impress and strike a sense of awe in the hearts of the visitors. A person who wanted to visit the ruler had to pass through lofty gates which were heavily guarded by spectacularly uniformed and heavily armed. He then entered the majestic surroundings of the court that was exquisitely furnished and decorated with all kinds of costly materials and furnishings. It was in such awe-inspiring surroundings that the ruler held his public court.

The ruler engaged in presenting high value gifts and presented expensive robes to the nobles.

One ruler Muhammad Tughlaq has been estimated to have presented 200,000 robes every year. These robes, woven in the royal workshops, generally consisted of imported cloth-velvet, damask or wool on which brocade and costly materials were used. They must have cost an enormous sum. Numerous gifts used to be bestowed on the nobles and others on festive occasions such as the ruler’s birthday, the nauroz (the Persian new year), amid the annual coronation day.

The royal karkhanas which we have referred to earlier catered to all the needs of the ruler. They manufactured costly articles made of silk, gold and silver ware. They were also stores of choice and rare goods and their superintendents were instructed by the ruler to buy finely finished articles wherever and at whatever price they were available. It is said that on one occasion a single pair of shoes for the ruler cost 70,000. Most of the articles of royal use were worked in gold and silver, embroidery and jewels. The stores also catered to the women in the haram. Almost every ruler had a haramhousing queens and a large number of slaves from various countries. A large number of servants and slaves, men and women, were employed to safeguard them, and to look after their comforts. All the women relations of the ruler, including his mother, aunts, etc., also lived in the haram. Separate accommodation had to be provided to each of them.

The nobles tried to emulate the ruler in ostentatious living. They had magnificent palaces to live in, they used costly articles of apparel, and were surrounded by a large servants and retainers. They vied with each other in holding lavish feasts and festivals. However, some nobles patronised men of arts and letters. Some rulers sternly repressed the nobles but the ostentatious mode of life revived under his successors. The nobility came into its own under the Tughlaqs. Due to the rapid expansion of the empire, large salaries and allowances were given to the nobles by the rulers and some of them enjoyed an income that was rated as hugely large.

There salaries were virtually in millions and they also had access to extra financial resources. The result was that a large number of nobles were able to acquire large fortunes that certainly equaled that of the ruler. The ruler however ensured that the riches possessed by the rich noble was returned to him once the noble died and employing such means he exercised tremendous control over the nobility.

The ruler also made the nobles to move about the realm as he wanted to ensure his superior authority.

It was however not easy to keep them under influence all of the times as the ruler needed them more than they needed him. The ruler was pretty helpless if his nobility did not support him particularly during war as they brought their own forces to fight with the ruler. It was however quite difficult for the ruler to keep a balance between the members of the nobility as different factions always remained in operation frustrating rulers quite frequently. The ruler often was compelled to compromise with his nobility and had to accede the demands of the nobility. The relationship always remained tenuous and it was a tricky business for both the rulers and members of the nobility for ensuring the survival of their high level status within the system.